Moral Science | Page 7

that virtue discharges a man's
obligations to his fellows, which being accomplished, he is then at
liberty to seek what pleases himself. (For the application of the laws of
mind to the theory of HAPPINESS, see Appendix C.)
IV.-The CLASSIFICATION OF DUTIES is characteristic of different
systems and different authors. The oldest scheme is the Four Cardinal
Virtues--Prudence, Courage, Temperance, Justice. The modern
Christian moralists usually adopt the division--Duties to God, to Others,
to Self.
Moreover, there are differences in the substance of Morality itself, or
the things actually imposed. The code under Christianity has varied
both from Judaism and from Paganism.
V.-The relationship of Ethics to POLITICS is close, while the points of

difference of the two are also of great importance. In Plato the two
subjects were inseparable; and in Aristotle, they were blended to excess.
Hobbes also joined Ethics and Politics in one system. (See Chap, ii., §
3.)
VI.-The relation of Ethics to THEOLOGY is variously represented in
modern systems. The Fathers and the Schoolmen accepted the authority
of the Bible chiefly on tradition, and did not venture to sit in judgment
on the substance of the revelation. They, therefore, rested their Ethics
exclusively on the Bible; or, at most, ventured upon giving some mere
supplement of its precepts.
Others, in more modern times, have considered that the moral character
of a revelation enters into the evidence in its favour; whence, morality
must be considered as independent, and exclusively human, in its origin.
It would be reasoning in a circle to derive the moral law from the bible,
and then to prove the bible from the moral law.
Religion superadds its own sanction to the moral duties, so far as
adopted by it; laying especial stress upon select precepts. It likewise
calls into being a distinct code of duties, the religious duties strictly so
called; which have no force except with believers. The 'duties to God,'
in the modern classification, are religious, as distinguished from moral
duties.

CHAPTER II.
THE ETHICAL STANDARD.
1. ETHICS, or Morality, is a department of Practice; and, as with other
practical departments, is defined by its End.
Ethics is not mere knowledge or speculation, like the sciences of
Astronomy, Physiology, or Psychology; it is knowledge applied to
practice, or useful ends, like Navigation, Medicine, or Politics. Every
practical subject has some end to be served, the statement of which is

its definition in the first instance. Navigation is the applying of
different kinds of knowledge, and of a variety of devices, to the end of
sailing the seas.
2. The Ethical End is a certain portion of the welfare of human beings
living together in society, realized through rules of conduct duly
enforced.
The obvious intention of morality is the good of mankind. The
precepts--do not steal, do not kill, fulfil agreements, speak
truth--whatever other reasons may be assigned for them, have a direct
tendency to prevent great evils that might otherwise arise in the
intercourse of human beings.
Farther, the good aimed at by Ethics is attained by rules of acting, on
the part of one human being to another; and, inasmuch as these rules
often run counter to the tendencies of the individual mind, it is requisite
to provide adequate inducements to comply with them.
The Ethical End is what is otherwise called the STANDARD, test, or
criterion, of Right and Wrong. The leading controversy of Morals is
centered in this point.
3. The Rules of Ethics, termed also Law, Laws, the Moral Law, are of
two kinds:--
The first are rules imposed under a Penalty for neglect, or violation.
The penalty is termed _Punishment_; the imposing party is named
Government, or Authority; and the rules so imposed and enforced, are
called Laws proper, Morality proper, Obligatory Morality, Duty.
4. The second are rules whose only external support is _Rewards_;
constituting Optional Morality, Merit, Virtue, or Nobleness.
Moral duties are a set of rules, precepts, or prescriptions, for the
direction of human conduct in a certain sphere or province. These rules
are enforced by two kinds of motives, requiring to be kept distinct.

I.--One class of rules are made compulsory by the infliction of pain, in
the case of violation or neglect. The pain so inflicted is termed a
Penalty, or Punishment; it is one of the most familiar experiences of all
human beings living in society.
The Institution that issues Rules of this class, and inflicts punishment
when they are not complied with, is termed Government, or Authority;
all its rules are authoritative, or obligatory; they are Laws strictly so
called, Laws proper. Punishment, Government, Authority, Superiority,
Obligation, Law, Duty,--define each other; they are all different modes
of regarding the same fact.
Morality is thus in every respect analagous to Civil Government, or the
Law of the Land. Nay, farther,