The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 | Page 2

the forces of Hasdrubal and Hannibal, was ultimately due to the fact that the younger brother could not bring his succoring reinforcements by sea, but only by the land route through Gaul. Hence at the critical moment the two Carthaginian armies were separated by the length of Italy, and one was destroyed by the combined action of the Roman generals.
On the other hand, naval historians have troubled themselves little about the connection between general history and their own particular topic, limiting themselves generally to the duty of simple chroniclers of naval occurrences. This is less true of the French than of the English; the genius and training of the former people leading them to more careful inquiry into the causes of particular results and the mutual relation of events.
There is not, however, within the knowledge of the author any work that professes the particular object here sought; namely, an estimate of the effect of sea power upon the course of history and the prosperity of nations. As other histories deal with the wars, politics, social and economical conditions of countries, touching upon maritime matters only incidentally and generally unsympathetically, so the present work aims at putting maritime interests in the foreground, without divorcing them, however, from their surroundings of cause and effect in general history, but seeking to show how they modified the latter, and were modified by them.
The period embraced is from 1660, when the sailing-ship era, with its distinctive features, had fairly begun, to 1783, the end of the American Revolution. While the thread of general history upon which the successive maritime events is strung is intentionally slight, the effort has been to present a clear as well as accurate outline. Writing as a naval officer in full sympathy with his profession, the author has not hesitated to digress freely on questions of naval policy, strategy, and tactics; but as technical language has been avoided, it is hoped that these matters, simply presented, will be found of interest to the unprofessional reader.
A. T. MAHAN
DECEMBER, 1889.

CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY.
History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely military 1 Permanence of the teachings of history 2 Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion 2 Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships 2 Essential distinction between weather and lee gage 5 Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions 6 Consequent effect upon naval policy 6 Lessons of history apply especially to strategy 7 Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable 9
ILLUSTRATIONS: The battle of the Nile, A.D. 1798 10 Trafalgar, A.D. 1805 11 Siege of Gibraltar, A.D. 1779-1782 12 Actium, B.C. 31, and Lepanto, A.D. 1571 13 Second Punic War, B.C. 218-201 14
Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly 22 Wide scope of naval strategy 22
CHAPTER I.
DISCUSSION OF THE ELEMENTS OF SEA POWER.
The sea a great common 25 Advantages of water-carriage over that by land 25 Navies exist for the protection of commerce 26 Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports 27 Development of colonies and colonial posts 28 Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies 28 General conditions affecting Sea Power: I. Geographical position 29 II. Physical conformation 35 III. Extent of territory 42 IV. Number of population 44 V. National character 50 VI. Character and policy of governments 58 England 59 Holland 67 France 69 Influence of colonies on Sea Power 82 The United States: Its weakness in Sea Power 83 Its chief interest in internal development 84 Danger from blockades 85 Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest 87 Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power 88 Purpose of the historical narrative 89
CHAPTER II.
STATE OF EUROPE IN 1660.--SECOND ANGLO-DUTCH WAR, 1665-1667.--SEA BATTLES OF LOWESTOFT AND OF THE FOUR DAYS
Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV. 90 Followed shortly by general wars 91 French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu 92 Condition of France in 1660 93 Condition of Spain 94 Condition of the Dutch United Provinces 96 Their commerce and colonies 97 Character of their government 98 Parties in the State 99 Condition of England in 1660 99 Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships 101 Conditions of other European States 102 Louis XIV. the leading personality in Europe 103 His policy 104 Colbert's administrative acts 105 Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665 107 Battle of Lowestoft, 1665 108 Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers 109 The group formation 112 The order of battle for sailing-ships 115 The Four Days' Battle, 1666 117 Military merits of the opposing fleets 126 Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion 127 Ruyter in the Thames, 1667 132 Peace of Breda, 1667 132 Military value of commerce-destroying 132
CHAPTER III.
WAR OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN ALLIANCE AGAINST THE UNITED PROVINCES, 1672-1674.--FINALLY, OF FRANCE AGAINST COMBINED EUROPE, 1674-1678.--SEA BATTLES OF SOLEBAY, THE TEXEL, AND STROMBOLI.
Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands 139 Policy of the United