The Church and the Empire | Page 3

in more
modern times. The history of the Church during these three hundred
years is more political than at any other period. In order to understand
the reason for this it will be well at the outset to sketch in brief outline
the political theories propounded in the Middle Ages on the relations of
Church and State. So only can we avoid the inevitable confusion of
mind which must result from the use of terms familiar in modern life.
[Sidenote: Unity of world.]
Medieval thought, then, drawing its materials from Roman, Germanic
and Christian sources, conceived the Universe as _Civitas Dei_, the
State of God, embracing both heaven and earth, with God as at once the

source, the guide and the ultimate goal. Now this Universe contains
numerous parts, one of which is composed of mankind; and the destiny
of mankind is identified with that of Christendom. Hence it follows that
mankind may be described as the Commonwealth of the Human Race;
and unity under one law and one government is essential to the
attainment of the divine purpose.
[Sidenote: Duality of organisation.]
But this very unity of the whole Universe gives a double aspect to the
life of mankind, which has to be spent in this world with a view to its
continuation in the next. Thus God has appointed two separate Orders,
each complete in its own sphere, the one concerned with the
arrangement of affairs for this life, the other charged with the
preparation of mankind for the life to come.
[Sidenote: Relations of Church and State.]
But this dualism of allegiance was in direct conflict with the idea of
unity. The two separate Orders were distinguished as Sacerdotium and
Regnum or _Imperium_; and the need felt by mediaeval thinkers for
reconciling these two in the higher unity of the Civitas Dei began
speculations on the relation between the ecclesiastical and the secular
spheres.
[Sidenote: Theory of Church party.]
The champions of the former found a reconciliation of the two spheres
to consist in the absorption of the secular by the ecclesiastical. The one
community into which, by the admission of all, united mankind was
gathered, must needs be the Church of God. Of this Christ is the Head.
But in order to realise this unity on earth Christ has appointed a
representative, the Pope, who is therefore the head of both spheres in
this world. But along with this unity it must be allowed that God has
sanctioned the separate existence of the secular no less than that of the
ecclesiastical dominion. This separation, however, according to the
advocates of papal power, did not affect the deposit of authority, but
affected merely the manner of its exercise. Spiritual and temporal
power in this world alike belonged to the representative of Christ.
[Sidenote: Sinful origin of State.]
But the bolder advocates of ecclesiastical power were ready to explain
away the divine sanction of temporal authority. Actually existing states
have often originated in violence. Thus the State in its earthly origin

may be regarded as the work of human nature as affected by the Fall of
Man: like sin itself, it is permitted by God. Consequently it needs the
sanction of the Church in order to remove the taint. Hence, at best, the
temporal power is subject to the ecclesiastical: it is merely a means for
working out the higher purpose entrusted to the Church. Pope Gregory
VII goes farther still in depreciation of the temporal power. He declares
roundly that it is the work of sin and the devil. "Who does not know,"
he writes, "that kings and dukes have derived their power from those
who, ignoring God, in their blind desire and intolerable presumption
have aspired to rule over their equals, that is, men, by pride, plunder,
perfidy, murder, in short by every kind of wickedness, at the instigation
of the prince of this world, namely, the devil?" But in this he is only
re-echoing the teaching of St. Augustine; and he is followed, among
other representative writers, by John of Salisbury, the secretary and
champion of Thomas Becket, and by Pope Innocent III. To all three
there is an instructive contrast between a power divinely conferred and
one that has at the best been wrested from God by human importunity.
[Sidenote: Illustration of relations.]
There are two illustrations of the relation between the spiritual and
secular powers very common among papal writers. Gregory VII, at the
beginning of his reign, compares them to the two eyes in a man's head.
But he soon substitutes for this symbol of theoretical equality a
comparison to the sun and moon, or to the soul and body, whereby he
claims for the spiritual authority, as represented by the soul or the sun,
the operative and illuminating power in the world, without