main doctrine of the
Nyâya-Vais'e@sika Philosophy..........310 9 The six Padârthas: Dravya,
Gu@na, Karma, Sâmânya, Vis'e@sa,
Samavâya........................................................313 10 The Theory of
Causation.......................................319 11 Dissolution (Pralaya) and
Creation (S@r@s@ti).................323 12 Proof of the Existence of
Is'vara.............................325 13 The Nyâya-Vais'e@sika
Physics.................................326 14 The Origin of Knowledge
(Pramâ@na)............................330 15 The four Pramâ@nas of
Nyâya...................................332 16 Perception
(Pratyak@sa).......................................333 17
Inference.....................................................343 18 Upamâna and
S'abda............................................354 19 Negation in
Nyâya-Vais'e@sika.................................355 20 The necessity of the
Acquirement of debating devices for the seeker of
Salvation.........................................360 21 The Doctrine of
Soul..........................................362 22 Îs'vara and
Salvation.........................................363
xvi
CHAPTER IX
MÎMÂ@MSÂ PHILOSOPHY
1 A Comparative Review...........................................367 2 The
Mîmâ@msâ Literature........................................369 3 The
Parata@h-prâmâ@nya doctrine of Nyâya and the
Svata@h-prâmâ@nya doctrine of Mîmâ@msâ..........................372 4
The place of Sense-organs in Perception........................375 5
Indeterminate and Determinate Perception.......................378 6 Some
Ontological Problems connected with the Doctrine of
Perception......................................................379 7 The Nature of
Knowledge........................................382 8 The Psychology of
Illusion.....................................384 9
Inference......................................................387 10 Upamâna,
Arthâpatti...........................................391 11
S'abda-pramâ@na...............................................394 12 The Pramâ@na
of Non-perception (anupalabdhi)..................397 13 Self, Salvation, and
God......................................399 14 Mîmâ@msâ as Philosophy and
Mimâ@msâ as Ritualism..............403
CHAPTER X
THE S'A@NKARA SCHOOL OF VEDÂNTA
1 Comprehension of the Philosophical Issues more essential than the
Dialectic of Controversy....................................406 2 The philosophical
situation: a Review..........................408 3 Vedânta
Literature.............................................418 4 Vedânta in
Gau@dapâda..........................................420 5 Vedânta and Sa@nkara
(788-820 A.D.)............................429 6 The main idea of the Vedânta
philosophy........................439 7 In what sense is the world-appearance
false?...................443 8 The nature of the world-appearance,
phenomena..................445 9 The Definition of Ajñâna
(nescience)...........................452 10 Ajñâna established by Perception
and Inference................454 11 Locus and Object of Ajñâna,
Aha@mkâra and Anta@hkara@na.......457 12 Anirvâcyavâda and the
Vedânta dialectic.......................461 13 The Theory of
Causation.......................................465 14 Vedânta theory of Perception
and Inference....................470 15 Âtman, Jîva, Is'vara, Ekajîvavâda and
D@r@s@tis@r@s@tivâda....474 16 Vedânta theory of
Illusion....................................485 17 Vedânta Ethics and Vedânta
Emancipation.......................489 18 Vedânta and other Indian
systems..............................492
INDEX............................................................495
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
The achievements of the ancient Indians in the field of philosophy are
but very imperfectly known to the world at large, and it is unfortunate
that the condition is no better even in India. There is a small body of
Hindu scholars and ascetics living a retired life in solitude, who are
well acquainted with the subject, but they do not know English and are
not used to modern ways of thinking, and the idea that they ought to
write books in vernaculars in order to popularize the subject does not
appeal to them. Through the activity of various learned bodies and
private individuals both in Europe and in India large numbers of
philosophical works in Sanskrit and Pâli have been published, as well
as translations of a few of them, but there has been as yet little
systematic attempt on the part of scholars to study them and judge their
value. There are hundreds of Sanskrit works on most of the systems of
Indian thought and scarcely a hundredth part of them has been
translated. Indian modes of expression, entailing difficult technical
philosophical terms are so different from those of European thought,
that they can hardly ever be accurately translated. It is therefore very
difficult for a person unacquainted with Sanskrit to understand Indian
philosophical thought in its true bearing from translations. Pâli is a
much easier language than Sanskrit, but a knowledge of Pâli is helpful
in understanding only the earliest school of Buddhism, when it was in
its semi-philosophical stage. Sanskrit is generally regarded as a difficult
language. But no one from an acquaintance with Vedic or ordinary
literary Sanskrit can have any idea of the difficulty of the logical and
abstruse parts of Sanskrit philosophical literature. A man who can
easily understand the Vedas. the Upani@sads, the Purânas, the Law
Books and the literary works, and is also well acquainted with
European philosophical thought, may find it literally impossible to
understand even small portions of a work of advanced Indian logic, or
the dialectical Vedânta. This is due to two reasons, the use of technical
terms and of great condensation in expression, and the hidden allusions
to doctrines of other systems. The
2
tendency to conceiving philosophical problems in a clear and
unambiguous manner is an important feature of Sanskrit thought, but
from the ninth century onwards, the habit of using clear, definite, and
precise expressions, began to develop in a very striking manner, and as
a result of that a large number of technical terms began to be invented.
These terms are seldom properly explained, and it is presupposed that
the reader who wants to read the works should have a knowledge of
them. Any one in olden times who took to the study of any system of
philosophy, had to do so with a teacher, who explained those terms to
him. The teacher himself had got it from his teacher, and he from his.
There was no tendency to popularize philosophy, for the idea then
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