Practical Argumentation | Page 2

overthrow error and discover truth. Courts of law, deliberative
assemblies, and all bodies of people that engage in discussion
recognize this fact. Argumentation threshes out a problem until the
chaff has blown away, when it is easy to see just what kernels of truth
remain and what action ought to be taken. Men of affairs, before
entering upon any great enterprise, call in advocates of different
systems, and by becoming familiar with arguments from every point of
view try to discover what is best. This method of procedure
presupposes a difference of opinion and belief among men, and holds
that when each one tries to establish his ideas, the truth will remain,
and that which is false will be swept away.
The field of argumentation includes every kind of discourse that
attempts to change man's actions or opinions. Exposition is explanation
when only one theory or one interpretation of the facts is possible;
when views of truth or of policy conflict, and one course is expounded
in opposition to another, the process becomes argumentation. This art is
used not only by professional speakers, but by men of every occupation.
The schoolboy pleading for a holiday, the workman seeking
employment, the statesman advocating a principle of government are
all engaged in some form of argumentation. Everywhere that men meet

together, on the street or in the assembly hall, debate is certain to arise.
Written argument is no less common. Hardly a periodical is published
but contains argumentative writing. The fiery editorial that urges voters
to the polls, the calm and polished essay that points out the dangers of
organized labor, the scientific treatise that demonstrates the
practicability of a sea-level canal on the Isthmus are attempts to change
existing conditions and ideas, and thus come within the field of
argumentation.
The practical benefit to be derived from the study and application of the
principles of argumentation can hardly be overestimated. The man who
wishes to influence the opinions and actions of others, who wishes to
become a leader of men in however great or however humble a sphere,
must be familiar with this art. The editor, the lawyer, the merchant, the
contractor, the laborer--men in every walk of life--depend for their
success upon bringing others to believe, in certain instances, as they
believe. Everywhere men who can point out what is right and best, and
can bring others to see it and act upon it, win the day. Another benefit
to be obtained from the study of argumentation is the ability to be
convinced intelligently. The good arguer is not likely to be carried
away by specious arguments or fallacious reasoning. He can weigh
every bit of evidence; he can test the strength and weakness of every
statement; he can separate the essential from the unessential; and he can
distinguish between prejudice and reason. A master of the art of
argumentation can both present his case convincingly to others, and
discover the truth in a matter that is presented to him.
Argumentation can hardly be considered as a distinct art standing by
itself; it is rather a composite of several arts, deriving its fundamentals
from them, and depending upon them for its existence. In the first place,
since argumentation is spoken or written discourse, it belongs to
rhetoric, and the rules which govern composition apply to it as strongly
as to any other kind of expression. In fact, perhaps rhetorical principles
should be observed in argumentation more rigidly than elsewhere, for
in the case of narration, description, or exposition, the reader or hearer,
in an endeavor to derive pleasure or profit, is seeking the author, while
in argumentation it is the author who is trying to force his ideas upon

the audience. Hence an argument must contain nothing crude or
repulsive, but must be attractive in every detail. In the second place,
any composition that attempts to alter beliefs must deal with reasons,
and the science of reasoning is logic. There is no need for the student of
argumentation to make an exhaustive study of this science, for the good
arguer is not obliged to know all the different ways the mind may work;
he must, however, know how it should work in order to produce
trustworthy results, and to the extent of teaching correct reasoning,
argumentation includes logic. In the third place, a study of the emotions
belongs to argumentation. According to the definition, argumentation
aims both at presenting truth and compelling action. As action depends
to a great extent upon man's emotions, the way to arouse his feelings
and passions is a fundamental principle of this art. Argumentation, then,
which is commonly classified as the fourth division of rhetoric, consists
of two fundamental elements. The part that is based upon logic and
depends for its effectiveness upon pure reasoning is called