On the Evolution of Language | Page 7

of tenses in paradigmatic form. Many tenses or time particles are found
incorporated in verbs. Some of these time particles are excessively
worn, and may appear rather as inflections than as incorporated
particles. Usually rather distinct present, past, and future tenses are
discovered; often a remote or ancient past, and less often an immediate
future. But great specification of time in relation to the present and in
relation to other time is usually found.

It was seen above that adverbial particles cannot be separated from
modal particles. In like manner tense particles cannot be separated from
adverbial and modal particles.
In an Indian language adverbs are differentiated only to a limited extent.
Adverbial qualifications are found in the verb, and thus there are a
multiplicity of modes and tenses, and no plane of demarcation can be
drawn between mode and tense. From preceding statements it will
appear that a verb in an Indian tongue may have incorporated with it a
great variety of particles, which can be arranged in three general classes,
i.e., pronominal, adverbial, and prepositional.
The pronominal particles we have called article pronouns; they serve to
point out a variety of characteristics in the subject, object, and indirect
object of the verb. They thus subserve purposes which in English are
subserved by differentiated adjectives as distinct parts of speech. They
might, therefore, with some propriety, have been called adjective
particles, but these elements perform another function; they serve the
purpose which is usually called agreement in language; that is, they
make the verb agree with the subject and object, and thus indicate the
syntactic relation between subject, object, and verb. In this sense they
might with propriety have been called relation particles, and doubtless
this function was in mind when some of the older grammarians called
them transitions.
The adverbial particles perform the functions of voice, mode, and tense,
together with many other functions that are performed in languages
spoken by more highly civilized people by differentiated adverbs,
adverbial phrases, and clauses.
The prepositional particles perform the function of indicating a great
variety of subordinate relations, like the prepositions used as distinct
parts of speech in English.
By the demonstrative function of some of the pronominal particles,
they are closely related to adverbial particles, and adverbial particles
are closely related to prepositional particles, so that it will be
sometimes difficult to say of a particular particle whether it be

pronominal or adverbial, and of another particular particle whether it be
adverbial or prepositional.
Thus the three classes of particles are not separated by absolute planes
of demarkation.
The use of these particles as parts of the verb; the use of nouns,
adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as intransitive verbs; and the
direct use of verbs as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, make the study of
an Indian tongue to a large extent the study of its verbs.
To the extent that voice, mode, and tense are accomplished by the use
of agglutinated particles or inflections, to that extent adverbs and verbs
are undifferentiated.
To the extent that adverbs are found as incorporated particles in verbs,
the two parts of speech are undifferentiated.
To the extent that prepositions are particles incorporated in the verb,
prepositions and verbs are undifferentiated.
To the extent that prepositions are affixed to nouns, prepositions and
nouns are undifferentiated.
In all these particulars it is seen that the Indian tongues belong to a very
low type of organization. Various scholars have called attention to this
feature by describing Indian languages as being holophrastic,
polysynthetic, or synthetic. The term synthetic is perhaps the best, and
may be used as synonymous with undifferentiated.
Indian tongues, therefore, may be said to be highly synthetic in that
their parts of speech are imperfectly differentiated.
In these same particulars the English language is highly organized, as
the parts of speech are highly differentiated. Yet the difference is one of
degree, not of kind.
To the extent in the English language that inflection is used for

qualification, as for person, number, and gender of the noun and
pronoun, and for mode and tense in the verb, to that extent the parts of
speech are undifferentiated. But we have seen that inflection is used for
this purpose to a very slight extent.
There is yet in the English language one important differentiation
which has been but partially accomplished. Verbs as usually considered
are undifferentiated parts of speech; they are nouns and adjectives, one
or both, and predicants. The predicant simple is a distinct part of speech.
The English language has but one, the verb to be, and this is not always
a pure predicant, for it sometimes contains within itself an adverbial
element when it is conjugated for mode and tense, and a connective
element when it is conjugated for agreement. With adjectives and
nouns this verb