Integration of the Armed Forces | Page 5

INTERESTS VERSUS PRESIDENTIAL INTENT.......... 315 Public Reaction to Executive Order 9981............... 315 The Army: Segregation on the Defensive................ 318 A Different Approach.................................. 326 The Navy: Business as Usual........................... 331 Adjustments in the Marine Corps....................... 334 The Air Force Plans for Limited Integration........... 338 14. THE FAHY COMMITTEE VERSUS THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE... 343 The Committee's Recommendations....................... 348 A Summer of Discontent................................ 362 Assignments........................................... 368 Quotas................................................ 371 An Assessment......................................... 375 15. THE ROLE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, 1949-1951....... 379 Overseas Restrictions................................. 385 Congressional Concerns................................ 389 16. INTEGRATION IN THE AIR FORCE AND THE NAVY............. 397 The Air Force, 1949-1951.............................. 397 The Navy and Executive Order 9981..................... 412 17. THE ARMY INTEGRATES................................... 428 Race and Efficiency: 1950............................. 428 Training.............................................. 434 Performance of Segregated Units....................... 436 Final Arguments....................................... 440 Integration of the Eighth Army........................ 442 Integration of the European and Continental Commands.. 448 (p.?xv) 18. INTEGRATION OF THE MARINE CORPS....................... 460 Impetus for Change.................................... 461 Assignments........................................... 466 19. A NEW ERA BEGINS...................................... 473 The Civil Rights Revolution........................... 474 Limitations on Executive Order 9981................... 479 Integration of Navy Shipyards......................... 483 Dependent Children and Integrated Schools............. 487 20. LIMITED RESPONSE TO DISCRIMINATION.................... 501 The Kennedy Administration and Civil Rights........... 504 The Department of Defense, 1961-1963.................. 510 Discrimination Off the Military Reservation........... 511 Reserves and Regulars: A Comparison................... 517 21. EQUAL TREATMENT AND OPPORTUNITY REDEFINED............. 530 The Secretary Makes a Decision........................ 530 The Gesell Committee.................................. 535 Reaction to a New Commitment.......................... 545 The Gesell Committee: Final Report.................... 552 22. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE MILITARY COMMUNITY........... 556 Creating a Civil Rights Apparatus..................... 558 Fighting Discrimination Within the Services........... 566 23. FROM VOLUNTARY COMPLIANCE TO SANCTIONS................ 581 Development of Voluntary Action Programs.............. 581 Civil Rights, 1964-1966............................... 586 The Civil Rights Act and Voluntary Compliance......... 590 The Limits of Voluntary Compliance.................... 593 24. CONCLUSION............................................ 609 Why the Services Integrated........................... 609 How the Services Integrated, 1946-1954................ 614 Equal Treatment and Opportunity....................... 619 NOTE ON SOURCES........................................... 625 INDEX..................................................... 635
Illustrations
Crewmen of the USS Miami During the Civil War............. 4 Buffalo Soldiers............................................ 5 Integration in the Army of 1888............................. 9 Gunner's Gang on the USS Maine........................... 10 (p.?xvi) General John J. (Black Jack) Pershing Inspects Troops...... 11 Heroes of the 369th Infantry, February 1919................ 13 Judge William H. Hastie.................................... 20 General George C. Marshall and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson............................................... 21 Engineer Construction Troops in Liberia, July 1942......... 26 Labor Battalion Troops in the Aleutian Islands, May 1943... 27 Sergeant Addressing the Line............................... 28 Pilots of the 332d Fighter Group........................... 29 Service Club, Fort Huachuca................................ 35 93d Division Troops in Bougainville, April 1944............ 44 Gun Crew of Battery B, 598th Field Artillery, September 1944........................................... 47 Tankers of the 761st Medium Tank Battalion Prepare for Action................................................... 48 WAAC Replacements.......................................... 50 Volunteers for Combat in Training.......................... 53 Road Repairmen............................................. 56 Mess Attendant, First Class, Dorie Miller Addressing Recruits at Camp Smalls.................................. 60 Admiral Ernest J. King and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox..................................................... 61 Crew Members of USS Argonaut, Pearl Harbor, 1942......... 62 Messmen Volunteer as Gunners, July 1942.................... 65 Electrician Mates String Power Lines....................... 68 Laborers at Naval Ammunition Depot......................... 73 Seabees in the South Pacific............................... 74 Lt. Comdr. Christopher S. Sargent.......................... 76 USS Mason................................................ 78 First Black Officers in the Navy........................... 81 Lt. (jg.) Harriet Ida Pickens and Ens. Frances Wills....... 88 Sailors in the General Service............................. 89 Security Watch in the Marianas............................. 90 Specialists Repair Aircraft................................ 93 The 22d Special Construction Battalion Celebrates V-J Day.. 97 Marines of the 51st Defense Battalion, Montford Point, 1942............................................. 102 Shore Party in Training, Camp Lejeune, 1942............... 105 D-day on Peleliu.......................................... 106 Medical Attendants at Rest, Peleliu, October 1944......... 107 Gun Crew of the 52d Defense Battalion..................... 110 Crewmen of USCG Lifeboat Station, Pea Island, North Carolina................................................ 112 Coast Guard Recruits at Manhattan Beach Training Station, New York....................................... 113 Stewards at Battle Station on the Cutter Campbell....... 117 Shore Leave in Scotland................................... 118 Lt. Comdr. Carlton Skinner and Crew of the USS Sea Cloud............................................. 120 Ens. Joseph J. Jenkins and Lt. (jg.) Clarence Samuels..... 121 President Harry S. Truman Addressing the NAACP Convention.............................................. 127 Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy................. 130 Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War Truman K. Gibson.... 131 (p.?xvii) Company I, 370th Infantry, 92d Division, Advances Through Cascina, Italy.................................. 134 92d Division Engineers Prepare a Ford for Arno River Traffic................................................. 136 Lester Granger Interviewing Sailors....................... 146 Granger With Crewmen of a Naval Yard Craft................ 147 Lt. Gen. Alvan C. Gillem, U.S. Army....................... 154 Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson...................... 162 Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, U.S. Navy....................... 167 General Gerald C. Thomas, U.S. Marine Corps............... 172 Lt. Gen. Willard S. Paul.................................. 178 Adviser to the Secretary of War Marcus Ray................ 184 Lt. Gen. Robert L. Eichelberger Inspects 24th Infantry Troops.................................................. 191 Army Specialists Report for Airborne Training............. 200 Bridge Players, Seaview Service Club, Tokyo, Japan, 1948............................................. 203 24th Infantry Band,