How to Write Clearly | Page 4

"as," &c.
38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of
what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep
the thread of meaning unbroken.
39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence prepares
the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole forming a
kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."
40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness,

and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."
40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.
41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
42. Epigram.
43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
words at the beginning of the sentence.
45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs
sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition
of thought.
II. BREVITY.
46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
terms.
47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.
48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes
ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.
49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be
used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
expressed at length.
51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very," "so."
Exaggerated epithets, e.g. "incalculable," "unprecedented."

51 a. The imperative may be used for "if &c."
52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.
53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or
Prepositions.
54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first
consideration.

CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules.
WORDS.
*1. Use words in their proper sense.*
Write, not "His apparent guilt justified his friends in disowning him,"
but "his evident guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural" and
"supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and "event,"
"reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused
together.
This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is in
my power to refuse your request, and since I have power to do this, I
may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for "authority."
This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully," "delicious,"
"glorious," &c. See (2).
*2. Avoid exaggerations.*

"The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished inexhaustible
supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for twice the
population."
Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words
"unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often
used in the same loose way.
*3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."*
"Her Majesty here partook of lunch." Write "lunched."
"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy.
So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual" for
"man," "assist" for "help," &c.
*4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not ... and," "any,"
"only," "not ... or," "that."*[5]
*And.* See below, "Or."
*Any.*--"I am not bound to receive any messenger that you send."
Does this mean every, or a single? Use "every" or "a single."
*Not.*--(1) "I do not intend to help you, because you are my enemy
&c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for
not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly
used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy
(but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, not ought to
be separated from intend. By distinctly marking the limits to which the
influence of not extends, the ambiguity may be removed.
*Only* is often used ambiguously for alone. "The rest help me to
revenge myself; you only advise me to wait." This ought to mean, "you
only advise, instead of helping;" but in similar sentences "you only" is
often used for "you alone." But see 21.
*Or.*--When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter or

honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and," nor like
"nor." The strict use of "not ... or" would be as follows:--
"You say you don't want both butter and honey--you want butter or
honey; I, on the contrary, do not want butter or honey--I want them
both."
Practically, however, this meaning is so rare,