Higher Lessons in English | Page 6

characters, or letters, which represent
to the eye these sounds that address the ear.
You are now prepared to understand us when we say that +vowels+ are
the +letters+ that stand for the +open sounds+ of the +voice+, and that
+consonants+ are the +letters+ that stand for the sounds made by the
+obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+.
The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A perfect
alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one.
Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways:--
1. Some of the letters are superfluous; c stands for the sound of s or of k,
as in city and can; q has the sound of k, as in quit; and x that of ks, gz,
or z, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon.
2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds; as, th in
thine, th in thin, ng in sing, and sh in shut.
3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters
represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; e
stands for two sounds, as in mete and met; i for two, as in pine and pin;
o for three, as in note, not, and move; u for four, as in tube, tub, full,
and fur; a for six, as in fate, fat, far, fall, fast, and fare.
W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a
vowel sound, and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i, as in now, by,
boy, newly.
W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word or
syllable.
The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel
are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These
changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of
the compounds, ou, oi, ew, and in the alphabetic i and o.
1. 2. Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. b..................p d..................t
g..................k -------------------h j..................ch l------------------

m------------------ n------------------ r------------------ th.................th (in
thine) (in thin) v..................f w------------------ y------------------ z (in
zone)......s z (in azure).....sh
The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the
obstructed voice; those in column 2, except h (which represents a mere
forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath.
The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips,
and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds
of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of
any pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in
column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of
any letter in column 1, as b, g, v, and the last or vanishing part of it is
the sound of the other letter of the pair.
TO THE TEACHER.--Write these letters on the board, as above, and
drill the pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these
distinctions. Drill them on the vowels also.
In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought
before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture
of the pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words
naming this idea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish
clearly these four things.
TO THE TEACHER.--In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular
emphasis on Lesson 2.
* * * * *
LESSON 4.
ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.
TO THE TEACHER.--If the pupils have been through "Graded
Lessons" or its equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be
passed over rapidly.

+DEFINITION.--A Sentence is the expression of a thought in words+.
+Direction+.--Analyze the following sentences:--
+Model+.--Spiders spin. Why is this a sentence? Ans.--Because it
expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Spiders.
Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--Spin. [Footnote: The word
spiders, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; spin, used
merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the
pupil will please note here and elsewhere.]
1. Tides ebb. 2. Liquids flow. 3. Steam expands. 4. Carbon burns. 5.
Iron melts. 6. Powder explodes. 7. Leaves tremble. 8. Worms crawl. 9.
Hares leap.
In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts--the
+Subject+ and the +Predicate+.
+DEFINITION.--The Subject of a sentence names that of which
something is thought.+
+DEFINITION.--The Predicate of a sentence tells what is thought.+
+DEFINITION.--The Analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into
its parts.+
+Direction+.--Analyze these sentences:--
+Model+.--Beavers build. This is a sentence because it expresses a
thought. Beavers is the subject because it names that of which
something is thought; build