Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition | Page 8

English derivatives "angariate," "angariation," came to mean any service which was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general.

ANGARY (Lat. _jus angariae_; Fr. _droit d'angarie_; Ger. _Angarie_; from the Gr. [Greek: aggareia], the office of an [Greek: aggaros], courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art. 53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though belonging to companies or private persons, may be used for military operations, but "must be restored at the conclusion of peace and indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that "the plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however, that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the "necessity of war" can be made to cover.
(T. BA.)

ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in monotheistic religions, _e.g._. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of superhuman beings are continuous; but in monotheism there is a sharp distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand, and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the "angels."
"Angel" is a transcription of the Gr. [Greek: angelos], messenger. [Greek: angelos] in the New Testament, and the corresponding _mal'akh_ in the Old Testament, sometimes mean "messenger," and sometimes "angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English Versions. "Angel" is also used in the English Version for [Hebrew:] _'Abbir_, Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for [Hebrew:] _'Elohim_, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure [Hebrew:] _shin'an_, in Ps. lxviii. 17.
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In the later development of the religion of Israel, _'Elohim_ is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times _'Elohim_ (gods), _bn[=e] 'Elohim, bn[=e] Elim_ (sons of gods, _i.e._ members of the class of divine beings) were general terms for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and therefore inferior, and ultimately subordinate.[1] So, too, the angels are styled "holy ones,"[2] and "watchers,"[3] and are spoken of as the "host of heaven"[4] or of "Yahweh."[5] The "hosts," [Hebrew:] Sebaoth in the title _Yahweh Sebaoth_, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels.[6] The New Testament often speaks of "spirits," [Greek: pneumata].[7] In the earlier periods of the religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally stated, so that the idea of "angel" in the modern sense does not occur, but we find the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, Angel of the Lord, or _Mal'akh Elohim_, Angel of God. The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ is an appearance or manifestation of Yahweh in the form of a man, and the term _Mal'akh Yahweh_ is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii. 2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ say they have seen God.[8] The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ (or _Elohim_) appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.[9] The phrase _Mal'akh Yahweh_ may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and later on, when the angels were classified, the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ came to mean an angel of distinguished rank.[10] The identification of the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ with the _Logos_, or Second Person of the Trinity, is not indicated by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.
In the earlier literature the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ or Elohim is almost the only _mal'akh_ ("angel") mentioned. There are, however, a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ or Elohim. There are the cherubim who guard Eden. In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the original form of