Early Theories of Translation | Page 3

the English language, we
can scarcely view the problem of translation thus hopelessly.
The most stimulating and suggestive criticism, indeed, has come from
men who have seen in the very difficulty of the situation opportunities
for achievement. While the more cautious grammarian has ever been
doubtful of the quality of the translator's English, fearful of the

introduction of foreign words, foreign idioms, to the men who have
cared most about the destinies of the vernacular,--men like Caxton,
More, or Dryden,--translation has appeared not an enemy to the mother
tongue, but a means of enlarging and clarifying it. In the time of
Elizabeth the translator often directed his appeal more especially to
those who loved their country's language and wished to see it become a
more adequate medium of expression. That he should, then, look upon
translation as a promising experiment, rather than a doubtful
compromise, is an essential characteristic of the good critic.
The necessity for open-mindedness, indeed, in some degree accounts
for the tentative quality in so much of the theory of translation.
Translation fills too large a place, is too closely connected with the
whole course of literary development, to be disposed of easily. As each
succeeding period has revealed new fashions in literature, new avenues
of approach to the reader, there have been new translations and the
theorist has had to reverse or revise the opinions bequeathed to him
from a previous period. The theory of translation cannot be reduced to a
rule of thumb; it must again and again be modified to include new facts.
Thus regarded it becomes a vital part of our literary history, and has
significance both for those who love the English language and for those
who love English literature.
In conclusion, it remains only to mention a few of my many obligations.
To the libraries of Princeton and Harvard as well as Columbia
University I owe access to much useful material. It is a pleasure to
acknowledge my indebtedness to Professors Ashley H. Thorndike and
William W. Lawrence and to Professor William H. Hulme of Western
Reserve University for helpful criticism and suggestions. In especial I
am deeply grateful to Professor George Philip Krapp, who first
suggested this study and who has given me constant encouragement
and guidance throughout its course.
April, 1919.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 3
II. THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE 49
III. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 81
IV. FROM COWLEY TO POPE 135
INDEX 181

I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
I
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
From the comment of Anglo-Saxon writers one may derive a not
inadequate idea of the attitude generally prevailing in the medieval
period with regard to the treatment of material from foreign sources.
Suggestive statements appear in the prefaces to the works associated
with the name of Alfred. One method of translation is employed in
producing an English version of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care. "I
began," runs the preface, "among other various and manifold troubles
of this kingdom, to translate into English the book which is called in
Latin Pastoralis, and in English Shepherd's Book, sometimes word by
word, and sometimes according to the sense."[1] A similar practice is
described in the Proem to The Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius.
"King Alfred was the interpreter of this book, and turned it from book
Latin into English, as it is now done. Now he set forth word by word,
now sense from sense, as clearly and intelligently as he was able."[2]
The preface to St. Augustine's Soliloquies, the beginning of which,

unfortunately, seems to be lacking, suggests another possible treatment
of borrowed material. "I gathered for myself," writes the author,
"cudgels, and stud-shafts, and horizontal shafts, and helves for each of
the tools that I could work with, and bow-timbers and bolt-timbers for
every work that I could perform, the comeliest trees, as many as I could
carry. Neither came I with a burden home, for it did not please me to
bring all the wood back, even if I could bear it. In each tree I saw
something that I needed at home; therefore I advise each one who can,
and has many wains, that he direct his steps to the same wood where I
cut the stud-shafts. Let him fetch more for himself, and load his wains
with fair beams, that he may wind many a neat wall, and erect many a
rare house, and build a fair town, and therein may dwell merrily and
softly both winter and summer, as I have not yet done."[3]
Aelfric, writing a century later, develops his theories in greater detail.
Except in the Preface to Genesis, they are expressed in Latin, the
language of the lettered, a fact which suggests that, unlike the
translations themselves, the prefaces were addressed to readers