An Icelandic Primer | Page 3

The g was always sounded in the combination ng, as in single, not
as in singer.
12. *h* was sounded before j in such words as hjarta (heart) much as
in E. hue (= hjū). hl, hn, hr, hv probably represented voiceless l, n, r,
w respectively, hv being identical with E. wh: hlaupa (leap), hnīga
(bend), hringr (ring), hvat (what).
13. *j* is not distinguished from i in the MSS. It had the sound of E. y
in young: jǫrð (earth), sętja (to set).
14. *p* in pt probably had the sound of f: lopt (air).

15. *r* was always a strong point trill, as in Scotch.
16. *s* was always sharp.
17. *v* (which was sometimes written u and w) had the sound of E. w:
vel (well), hǫggva (hew).
18. *z* had the sound of ts: bęztr (best).
19. *þ* and *ð* were used promiscuously in the older MS., the
very oldest using þ almost exclusively. In Modern Icelandic þ is
written initially to express the sound of E. hard th, ð medially and
finally to express that of soft th; as there can be no doubt that this usage
corresponds with the old pronunciation, it is retained in this book:
þing (parliament), faðir (father), við (against). In such
combinations as pð the ð must of course be pronounced þ.
Stress
20. The stress (accent) is always on the first syllable.
PHONOLOGY
Vowels
21. The vowels are related to one another in different ways, the most
important of which are mutation (umlaut), fracture (brechung), and
gradation (ablaut).
Mutation
22. The following changes are *i*-mutations (caused by an older i or j
following, which has generally been dropped)[3]:
[Footnote 3: Many of the i's which appear in derivative and inflectional
syllables are late weakenings of a and other vowels, as in bani (death)
= Old English bana; these do not cause mutation.]
*a* (*ǫ*) ... *ę* :-- mann (man acc.), męnn (men); hǫnd

(hand), hęndr (hands).
*Ä* ... *æ* :-- mÄl (speech), mæla (speak).
*e* (*ja*, *jǫ*) ... *i* :-- verðr (worth), virða (estimate).
*u* (*o*) ... *y* :-- fullr (full), fylla (to fill); lopt (air), lypta (lift).
*ū* ... *ȳ* :-- brūn (eyebrow), pl. brȳnn.
*o* ... *ö* :-- koma (to come), kömr (comes).
*Å* ... *Å“* :-- fÅr (went), fÅ“ra (bring).
*au* ... *ey* :-- lauss (loose), leysa (loosen).
*jÅ«* (*jÅ*) ... *ȳ* :-- sjÅ«kr (sick), sȳki (sickness); ljÅsta (strike),
lȳstr (strikes).
23. The change of a into Ä™ is sometimes the result of a following k, g,
or ng, as in dęgi dat. sg. of dagr (day), tękinn (taken), gęnginn
(gone), inf. taka, ganga. i appears instead of e, and u instead of o before
a nasal followed by another cons.: cp. binda (to bind), bundinn (bound)
with bresta (burst) ptc. prt. brostinn.
24. There is also a *u*-mutation, caused by a following u, which has
often been dropped:
*a* ... *Ç«* :-- dagr
(day) dat. pl. dǫgum; land (land) pl. lǫnd.
25. Unaccented Ç« becomes u, as in sumur pl. of sumar (summer),
kǫlluðu (they called), infin. kalla.
Fracture
26. The only vowel that is affected by fracture is e: when followed by
original a it becomes ja, when followed by original u it becomes jǫ,
as in jarðar gen. of jǫrð (earth)[4]. When followed by original i,
the e is, of course, mutated to i, as in skildir plur. nom. of skjǫldr

(shield), gen. skjaldar.
[Footnote 4: Cp. German erde.]
Gradation
27. By gradation the vowels are related as follows:--
*a* ... *Å* :-- fara (go) pret. fÅr, whence by mut. fÅ“ra (bring).
*e* (i, ja) ... *a* ... *u* (o) :-- bresta (burst), prt. brast, prt. pl. brustu,
ptc. prt. brostinn; finna (find), fundinn (found ptc.), fundr (meeting).
*e* ... *a* ... *Ä* ... *o* :-- stela (steal), prt. stal, prt. pl. stÄlu, ptc. prt.
stolinn.
*e* ... *a* ... *Ä* ... *e* :-- gefa (give), gaf (he gave), gÄfu (they gave),
gefinn (given), gjÇ«f (gift), u-fracture of gef-, gæfa (luck) mut. of gÄf-.
*ī* ... *ei* ... *i* :-- skīna (shine), skein (he shone), skinu (they
shone). sÅl-skin (sunshine).
*jÅ«* (jÅ) ... *au* ... *u* ... *o* :-- ljÅ«ga (tell a lie), prt. laug, prt. pl.
lugu, ptc. prt. loginn. lygi (lie sbst.) mut. of lug-. skjÅta (shoot), skjÅtr
(swift), skotinn (shot ptc.), skot (shot subst.).
Other changes
28. All final vowels are long in accented syllables: þÄ
(then), nū
(now).
29. Inflectional and derivative vowels are often dropt after long
accented vowels: cp. ganga (to go) with fÄ (to get), the dat. plurals
knjÄm (knees) with hÅ«sum (houses).
30. Vowels are often lengthened before l + cons.: hÄlfr (half adj.), fÅlk
(people); cp. fÅlginn (hidden) with brostinn (burst ptc.).
Consonants

31. v is dropped before o and u: vaxa (to grow), prt. Åx, vinna