A Guide to Methods and Observation in History | Page 3

with respect to the kinds and uses of historical "material" of all kinds?

IV. Conceptions of the Purpose and Content of History.[1]
1. As polite literature: the Greek and Roman idea, e.g., Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy, Sallust, C?sar, Tacitus.
2. As annals and chronicles only: the Medi?val idea, e.g., Gregory of Tours, Froissart, Einhard.
3. As a basis for governmental policies and as a means of interpreting literature: the Renaissance idea, e.g., Machiavelli, Petrarch, Boccaccio.
4. As a basis for theological dogma and religious practices: the Reformation idea, e.g., Luther, Melanchthon, and the Jesuits.
5. As a basis for interpreting legal institutions and practices: the idea of the 17th century, e.g., the Jurists.
6. As a foundation for philosophical speculation and a means of discovering the deeper influences that affect humanity and hence influence action and produce events: the idea of the 18th century, e.g., Voltaire and Montesquieu. [Voltaire held that human nature is the same under all circumstances and at all times, and hence sought to judge historical events by abstract universal standards. The "natural man" was his ideal man. Montesquieu, in The Spirit of the Laws, sought to show that events in history are but the manifestation of spiritual law, as revealed in conditions of climate, geography, soil, natural resources, racial temperament, etc.]
7. As a foundation for personal reactions, e.g., criticisms, interpretation, moralizing, personal philosophizing, or as mere facts entertainingly told: the idea of the early 19th century.
8. History as science, i.e., as explanatory of existing social institutions, customs, beliefs: the idea of the 20th century.
[1] The fundamental purpose of historical writing has ever been the recording of events. In addition, however, different ages have stressed other aims.

V. Some Notable Influences and Persons that have modified the Conception of the Meaning of History in the Last Century.
1. Romantic School (late 18th century and early 19th century), with its deep reverence for the Middle Ages. Hence sympathetic treatment of history.
2. Herder (1744-1803), with his philosophy of "becoming" or development. Herder sought to show that all events are but the manifestation of a deity striving to work out an ideal universe. Hence all events must be judged by the standards of the time and country in which they appear, i.e., be judged by the characteristics of the age and people affected.
3. Hegel (1770-1831) carried the theory of Herder to more complete conclusions.
4. Niebuhr (1776-1831), "one of the most acute historical critics and philologists of modern times." Niebuhr was among the first to emphasize the need of a critical examination of source material, and of the building up the past out of these data.
5. Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886). His aim was to set before the reader the entire picture of events "with their causes, relations, and consequences."
6. Guizot, Fran?ois P. G. (1787-1874). His great influence was in extending the scope of history so as to include universal history, not merely national history, or the history of isolated and local events.
7. Carlyle (1795-1881), through his keen insight into character and his love of hero-worship, introduced the vividly realistic and picturesque element.
8. Buckle (1821-1862) included economic forces in his studies and sought the spirit of history apart from particular men and events.
9. Macaulay (1800-1859) presented historical philosophy and the laws and theories of government in eloquent and fascinating style, thus bringing to the popular mind an interest that had heretofore been slight.
10. Froude (1818-1894), in charming literary style but with carelessness of detail, emphasized the personal element in history and set himself the ideal of "simply recording human actions without theorizing theron."
11. Stubbs (1825-1901) "introduced the critical study of medi?val sources into England," employed exact methods of work, and gave impetus to constitutional history.
12. Green (1837-1883) depicted the progress of the life of the people and dealt only incidentally with the political history of the state.
13. Schmoller (1838- ) emphasized the economic aspects of history.

VI. History in the Curriculum.
1. Pre-Renaissance Period: Incidental historical study made in connection with the study of biography and literature.
2. Renaissance Period: Historical studies pursued as auxiliary to the interpretation of the classics.
3. Post-Renaissance Period in Europe.
(a) Heraldry and local, contemporary historical incidents and events taught in Ritterakedemien after 1648.
(b) In Germany, the systematic study of history in schools really dates from about 1806, though an independent status was given history in the universities (particularly in G?ttingen) in the 18th century.
(c) In France, historical study was introduced by Guizot (about 1833) but received no great attention until after 1860, though there was nominally a chair of history in the Coll��ge de France after 1769.
(d) In England, none but incidental attention was given historical study until after the middle of the 19th century, though there was a professorship of ancient history at Oxford in 1622, and professorships of modern history were found at both Oxford and Cambridge in 1724.
4. Historical Study in America.
(a) History was taught incidentally